Understanding the causes and scabies

Understanding the causes and scabies

Scabies, known colloquially as the seven-year itch, is a contagious skin infection that occurs among humans and other animals. It has been classified by the WHO as a water-related disease. It is caused by a tiny and usually not directly visible parasite, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei, which burrows under the host's skin, causing intense allergic itching. The infection in animals (caused by different but related mite species) is called sarcoptic mange.

 The disease may be transmitted from objects but is most often transmitted by direct skin-to-skin contact, with a higher risk with prolonged contact. Initial infections require four to six weeks to become symptomatic. Reinfection, however, may manifest symptoms within as little as 24 hours. Because the symptoms are allergic, their delay in onset is often mirrored by a significant delay in relief after the parasites have been eradicated. Crusted scabies, formerly known as Norwegian scabies, is a more severe form of the infection often associated with immunosuppression.

The characteristic symptoms of a scabies infection include intense itching and superficial burrows. The burrow tracks are often linear, to the point that a neat "line" of four or more closely placed and equally developed mosquito-like "bites" is almost diagnostic of the disease.

In the classic scenario, the itch is made worse by warmth and is usually experienced as being worse at night, possibly because there are fewer distractions. As a symptom, it is less common in the elderly.

The superficial burrows of scabies usually occur in the area of the hands, feet, wrists, elbows, back, buttocks, and external genitals. Except in infants and the immunosuppressed, infection generally does not occur in the skin of the face or scalp. The burrows are created by excavation of the adult mite in the epidermis.

In most people, the trails of the burrowing mites show as linear or s-shaped tracks in the skin, often accompanied by what appear as rows of small pimple-like mosquito or insect bites. These signs are often found in crevices of the body, such as on the webs of fingers and toes, around the genital area, and under the breasts of women.

Symptoms typically appear two to six weeks after infestation for individuals never before exposed to scabies. For those having been previously exposed, the symptoms can appear within several days after infestation. However, it is not unknown for symptoms to appear after several months or years. Acropustulosis, or blisters and pustules on the palms and soles of the feet, are characteristic symptoms of scabies in infants.

The elderly and people with an impaired immune system, such as HIV, cancer, or those on immunosuppressive medications, are susceptible to crusted scabies  On those with a weaker immune system, the host becomes a more fertile breeding ground for the mites, which spread over the host's body, except the face. Sufferers of crusted scabies exhibit scaly rashes, slight itching, and thick crusts of skin that contain thousands of mites. Such areas make eradication of mites particularly difficult, as the crusts protect the mites from topical miticides, necessitating prolonged treatment of these areas.

In the 18th century, Italian biologist Diacinto Cestoni (1637–1718) described the mite now called Sarcoptes scabiei, variety hominis, as the cause of scabies. Sarcoptes is a genus of skin parasites and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as scab mites. These organisms have eight legs as adults, and are placed in the same phylogenetic class (Arachnida) as spiders and ticks.

Sarcoptes scabiei are microscopic, but sometimes are visible as pinpoints of white. Pregnant females tunnel into the dead, outermost layer (stratum corneum) of a host's skin and deposit eggs in the shallow burrows. The eggs hatch into larvae in three to ten days. These young mites move about on the skin and molt into a "nymphal" stage, before maturing as adults, which live three to four weeks in the host's skin. Males roam on top of the skin, occasionally burrowing into the skin. In general, there are usually few mites on a healthy hygienic person infested with non-crusted scabies; approximately eleven females in burrows can be found on such a person.

The movement of mites within and on the skin produces an intense itch, which has the characteristics of a delayed cell-mediated inflammatory response to allergens. IgE antibodies are present in the serum and the site of infection, which react to multiple protein allergens in the body of the mite. Some of these cross-react to allergens from house-dust mites. Immediate antibody-mediated allergic reactions (wheals) have been elicited in infected persons, but not in healthy persons; immediate hypersensitivity of this type is thought to explain the observed far more rapid allergic skin response to reinfection seen in persons having been previously infected (especially having been infected within the previous year or two). Because the host develops the symptoms as a reaction to the mites' presence over time, there is usually a four– to six-week incubation period after the onset of infestation. As noted, those previously infected with scabies and cured may exhibit the symptoms of a new infection in a much shorter period, as little as one to four days.

Scabies is contagious and can be spread by scratching an infected area, thereby picking up the mites under the fingernails, or through physical contact with a scabies-infected person for a prolonged period of time. Scabies is usually transmitted by direct skin-to-skin physical contact. It can also be spread through contact with other objects, such as clothing, bedding, furniture, or surfaces with which a person infected with scabies might have come in contact. Scabies mites can survive without a human host for 24 to 36 hours. As with lice, scabies can be transmitted through sexual intercourse even if a latex condom is used, because it is transmitted from skin-to-skin at sites other than sex organs.

Scabies may be diagnosed clinically in geographical areas where it is common when diffuse itching presents along with either lesions in two typical spots or there is itchiness of another household member. The classical sign of scabies is the burrows made by the mites within the skin. To detect the burrow, the suspected area is rubbed with ink from a fountain pen or a topical tetracycline solution, which glows under a special light. The skin is then wiped with an alcohol pad. If the person is infected with scabies, the characteristic zigzag or S pattern of the burrow will appear across the skin; however, interpreting this test may be difficult, as the burrows are scarce and may be obscured by scratch marks. A definitive diagnosis is made by finding either the scabies mites or their eggs and fecal pellets. Searches for these signs involve either scraping a suspected area, mounting the sample in potassium hydroxide, and examining it under a microscope, or using dermoscopy to examine the skin directly.

Mass treatment programs that use topical permethrin or oral ivermectin have been effective in reducing the prevalence of scabies in a number of populations. There is no vaccine available for scabies. The simultaneous treatment of all close contacts is recommended, even if they show no symptoms of infection (asymptomatic), to reduce rates of recurrence. Asymptomatic infection is relatively common. Objects in the environment pose little risk of transmission except in the case of crusted scabies, thus cleaning is of little importance. Rooms used by those with crusted scabies require thorough cleaning.

Noni AS CANCER DRUG

The use of noni for cancer treatment in recent years more and more popular as more research on the benefits of noni for cancer.
University of Hawaii research team led by Annie Hirazumi found that noni juice enhance the immune system works (mainly macrophages and lymphocytes) mice induced with Lewis lung cancer cells, thus able to survive 50 days more. Whereas mice not given noni only able to survive between 9-12 days. Annie is also observed that noni juice is useful for treating sarcoma.

Louisiana State University team, the U.S., led by Conrad A. Hornick, Ph.D. found that noni juice in the levels of 10% can stop the formation of blood vessels (anti-angiogenesis) in breast cancer cells and damage the blood vessels that cancer already exists, so the cancer cells die. 

Maria Gabriela was Manuele and his colleagues succeeded in proving that scopoletin can activate lymphocytes to eradicate cancer cells as well as lymphoma. 

Not to be outdone by his colleagues, Dr. Rangadhar Satapathy, MD stated that the noni plant has 150 Neutraceutical (medicinal nutrients), five of which are anticancer agents: 

(1) Polysaccharides are abundant in Morinda prevent the attachment of cells damaged / mutated into other cells, thus preventing the occurrence of metastases. 

(2) damnacanthal, similar anthraquinon, inhibits the growth of malignant cells. Alizarin, another anthraquinon, stopping blood flow to tumor tissue, thus stopping its development. 

(3) Epigollocatechin gallate (EGCG). Polyphenolic antioxidant flavonoid that is widely available in this noni prevent mutation of cells and induce apoptosis (suicide) in the abnormal cells. 

(4) terpenoids in noni preventing malignant cell division and induce apoptosis. One terpenoidnya, limonene, proven effective against breast cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, and leukemia. Other terpenoids, beta-carotene, helps stimulate the thymus gland to produce more T lymphocytes, cells that can directly destroy cancer cells. Moderate acid type triterpenoid ursolat also can prevent the growth of abnormal cells (cancer) as well as send existing abnormal cells to commit suicide (apoptosis). 

(5) According to the research of Dr.. Heinicke, proxeronine very much present in Noni. In the intestine is converted to xeronine proxeronine. Xeronine is also produced in limited quantities this body is required to activate proteins in the cell before it is used throughout the chemical process of the body. Xeronine also improve the structure and function to normalize the body's cells are damaged. Because, basically, every cell contains a protein, then the adequacy of xeronine can fix any kind of abnormal cells. From here obtained an explanation, why xeronine different effects on each person, but generally showed improvement according to each disease. 

But behind the impressive benefits of noni so there is one thing that is often an obstacle in taking noni, that smells bad. Aroma is quite pungent, caused by acid and capric acid kaproat there is lots of ripe noni fruit. The means used to reduce this scent is a blend of honey or brown sugar into noni juice, then stored in glass or glass bottles for 2-4 days. 

In this fermentation process kaproat acid and capric acid will decompose so that the smell is reduced, unfortunately not yet obtained clear whether this affects the usefulness of fermentation process or not. According to the testimony of its users, noni fruit is not ripe old (not many kaproat acid and capric acid) was less potent than noni fruit is completely ripe.

General characteristics of Noni

Tree

Noni is not that big tree, in height from 4-6 m. trunk twisted, branchy stiff, coarse, and has its roots embedded in the riding. Bark grayish brown or yellowish brown kuniangan, parted in the shallow, not hairy, bersegai four subsidiaries. Editorial suklalu evergreen. Noni is easy to split wood after drying. Can be used to support pepper plants.

Leaf 

Thick, shiny leaves. Noni leaf is face to face. Leaf size were large, thick, and a single. The shape is oblong-lanceolate, 15-50 x 5-17 cm. leaf edges flat, short pointed tip. The base of the wedge-shaped leaves. Veins pinnate leaves. Hiaju color glossy, hairless. The base of the leaves short, measuring 0.5 to 2.5 cm. fulcrum leaf size varies, the width is triangular. Noni leaves can be eaten as a vegetable. High nutritional value because it contains vitamin A.
 

Interest

Noni rounded hump-type inflorescence, 1-4 cm handle. Flowers grow in axillary leaves the fulcrum of dealing with leaves that grow normally. The flowers are androgynous. Petals white, funnel-shaped, 1.5 cm in length can be achieved. Stamens sticking in the mouth of the crown. Berputing two anthers. Flower petal-shaped blooms of the bunch. The flowers are white, fragrant.

Fruit

Petals oval to grow into a round of chicken eggs and some have a diameter of 7.5 to 10 cm. The fruit surface as divided into polygonal cells (in terms of many) who spotted and warty. At first the fruit is green, a yellowish white before cooking. Once cooked, the color is transparent white and tender. The pulp is composed of stone fruit pyramid-shaped, red-brown. Once soft, noni fruit contains a lot of water that smells like rotten cheese. The odor arising from mixing between the acid and acid kaprik kaproat (lipid or fatty compounds that volatile molecular clusters, a nature such as essential oils) that smells rancid and caprylic acid that tastes bad. Presumably both of these compounds are active as an antibiotic.

The content of Noni

Nutrients: whole noni fruit is full of nutritious food. Nutrients the body needs, such as protein, viamin, and essential minerals, available in sufficient quantities in fruit and noni leaf. Selenium, a mineral found in Noni is a powerful antioxidant. Various types of compounds contained in Noni: xeronine, plant sterois, alizarin, lycine, sosium, caprylic acid, arginine, proxeronine, antra quinines, trace elemens, phenylalanine, magnesium, etc..

     Terpenoids. It helps in the process of organic synthesis and recovery of the body's cells.
     Bakteri.Zat anti-active substances contained in Noni juice can kill the bacteria that cause infections, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Protens morganii, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli. Anti-bacterial substance that can also control the bacterial pathogen (turn off) such as Salmonella montivideo, S. scotmuelleri, S. typhi, and Shigella dusenteriae, S. flexnerii, S. pradysenteriae, and Staphylococcus aureus.

     Scolopetin. Scolopetin compounds are very effective as a element of anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic.

     Anti-cancer substances. Anti-cancer substances found in Noni most effective against the abnormal cells.

     Xeronine and proxeronine. One of the important alkaloids within noni terdapt is xeronine. Noni fruit contains very little xeronine, but contains a lot of stuff of the (precursor) xeronine alias proxeronine in large numbers. Proxeronine is a kind of nucleic acids such as colloid-colloid others. Xeronine absorbed by the body's cells to enable protein-protein which is inactive, set the structure and shape of the active cell.

Barrister | History and definition of the Barrister

A barrister is a member of one of the two classes of lawyer found in many common law jurisdictions with split legal professions. Barristers specialise in courtroom advocacy, drafting legal pleadings and giving expert legal opinions. They can be contrasted with solicitors — the other class of lawyer in split professions — who have more direct access with clients and who are in general office based. Barristers are rarely hired by clients directly but instead are retained (or instructed) by solicitors to act on behalf of clients.

The historical difference between the two professions—and the only essential difference in England and Wales today—is that a solicitor is an attorney, which means they can act in the place of their client for legal purposes (as in signing contracts) and may conduct litigation on their behalf by making applications to the court, writing letters in litigation to the client's opponent and so on. A barrister is not an attorney and is usually forbidden, either by law or professional rules or both, from "conducting" litigation. This means that while the barrister speaks on the client's behalf in court, he or she can only do so when instructed by a solicitor or certain other qualified professional clients, such as patent agents.

Many countries with common law legal systems, such as the United States, do not observe a distinction between barristers and solicitors. In countries with civil law or other kinds of legal systems the legal profession is often separated into divisions but these divisions rarely shadow those of barristers and solicitors.

Essentially, barristers are the lawyers who represent litigants as their advocate before the courts of that jurisdiction. They speak in court and present the case before a judge or jury. In contrast, solicitors generally engage in preparatory work and advice, such as drafting and reviewing legal documents, dealing with and receiving instructions from the client, preparing evidence, and managing the day-to-day administration of a matter.

Other differences include the following:

1. A barrister will usually have rights of audience in the higher courts, whereas other legal professionals will often have more limited access, or will need to take additional qualifications to do so. In this regard, the profession of barrister corresponds to that part of the role of legal professionals found in civil law jurisdictions relating to appearing in trials or pleading cases before the courts.
2. Barristers usually have a more specialised knowledge of case law and precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with an unusual point of law, they sometimes seek the "opinion of counsel" on the issue.
3. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or working as a barrister as part of a corporation (although in England and Wales the Clementi report has recommended the abolition of this restriction). However, barristers normally band together into 'chambers' to share clerks (administrators) and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a distinctly corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, some barristers are employed by firms of solicitors, banks or corporations as in-house legal advisers.
4. Solicitors work directly with the client and are responsible for engaging an appropriate barrister; whereas barristers generally have little or no direct contact with their 'lay clients', particularly without the presence or involvement of the solicitor. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, who is primarily responsible for the barrister's fees.
5. In court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England and Wales, barristers usually wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands and a gown. As of January 2008 Solicitor advocates will also be entitled to wear a wig, but will wear a different gown.

In many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the higher courts, but in England, Wales and Scotland this has now been abolished, and solicitor advocates can generally appear for clients at trial. Increasingly, firms of solicitors are keeping even the most advanced advisory and litigation work in-house for economic and client relationship reasons. Similarly, the prohibition on barristers taking instructions directly from the public has also been widely abolished, but in practice, direct instruction is still a rarity in most jurisdictions, partly because barristers with narrow specialisations or who are only really trained for advocacy are not equipped to provide general advice to members of the public.

Historically barristers have had a major role in trial preparation, including drafting pleadings and reviewing evidence. In some areas of law, that is still the case. In others, it is relatively common for a barrister to only receive a "brief" from an instructing solicitor to represent a client at trial a day or two before the hearing.

The reasons for a split profession are largely historical, but a number of reasons are still advanced for maintaining the split:

1. Having an independent barrister reviewing a cause of action gives the client a fresh and independent opinion from an expert in the field, something it is alleged rarely happens in jurisdictions with fused professions. However attorneys in a "fused" profession often serve differing roles for the same client, for example as in-house counsel and outside counsel.
2. In many jurisdictions, judges are appointed from the bar; and because barristers are independent, this results in a more independent judiciary.
3. Having recourse to all of the specialist barristers at the bar enables smaller firms, who could not maintain large specialist departments, to compete with larger firms.
4. A barrister acts as a check on the solicitor conducting the trial; if it becomes apparent that the claim or defence has not been properly conducted by the solicitor prior to trial, the barrister can (and usually has a duty to) advise the client of a separate possible claim against the solicitor.
5. Having trials conducted by experienced specialist advocates makes for smoother, more professionally run trials.

Against the above, a number of disadvantages are put forward:

1. A multiplicity of legal advisers leads to higher costs (something that caused no small amount of concern to Sir David Clementi in his review of the English legal profession).
2. As barristers are dependent upon solicitors for referrals of work, it is open to question how willing barristers are to criticise those who instruct them to the client.
3. Barristers are sometimes criticised for being "over-specialised" and not having sufficient general expertise outside of what can be highly specialised fields.

A detailed examination of the justifications for a split legal profession and of the arguments in favour of a fused profession can be found in English solicitor Peter Reeve’s 1986 book, Are Two Legal Professions Necessary?

Barristers are regulated by the Bar for the jurisdiction where they practise, and in some countries, by the Inn of Court to which they belong. In some countries, there is external regulation.

Inns of Court, where they exist, regulate admission to the profession. Inns of Court are independent societies that are titularly responsible for the training, admission (calling), and discipline of barristers. Where they exist, a person may only be called to the Bar by an Inn, of which they must first be a member. In fact, historically, call to and success at the Bar, to a large degree, depended upon social connections made early in life.

A Bar collectively describes all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction. While as a minimum the Bar is an association embracing all its members, it is usually the case, either de facto or de jure, that the Bar is invested with regulatory powers over the manner in which barristers practice.

In the common law tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer—that is as legal adviser and advocate—were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions, the other being the office of solicitor. Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern legal age, some countries that had a split legal profession now have a fused profession—anyone entitled to practice as a barrister may also practice as a solicitor, and vice versa. In practice, the distinction may be non-existent, minor, or marked, depending on the jurisdiction. In some jurisdictions, such Australia, Scotland and Ireland, there is little overlap.

Frontier Airlines | Understanding and definition of Frontier Airlines | Frontier Airlines Image

Frontier Airlines, Inc., is an American airline headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. The carrier, which is a subsidiary and operating brand of Republic Airways Holdings, operates flights to 83 destinations throughout the United States, Mexico, and Costa Rica and maintains hubs at Denver International Airport, Milwaukee's General Mitchell International Airport, Kansas City International Airport, and Omaha's Eppley Airfield. It provides regional service to the surrounding Rocky Mountain States through a code-share agreement with Great Lakes Airlines. Frontier is not a member of an air carrier alliance.

Frontier Airlines was incorporated on February 8, 1994, by a group that included executives of a previous incarnation of Frontier Airlines in response to the void left by Continental Airlines' 1993 shutdown of its Denver (Stapleton) hub. Scheduled flights began five months later in July 1994 utilizing Boeing 737 aircraft. Like the original, Frontier flew out of Denver. In 1999, Frontier signed agreements to begin purchasing and leasing Airbus A318 and A319 aircraft to expand its fleet. The airline took delivery of its first Airbus aircraft (an A319) in 2001 and simultaneously launched with it DirecTV in-flight television along with a new company livery. Frontier Airlines was the launch customer of the Airbus A318 in 2003. In mid-April 2005, Frontier officially became an all-Airbus fleet, retiring its last 737.

As part of its plan to stay competitive, the company underwent a reorganization early in 2006. On April 3, 2006, Frontier created Frontier Airlines Holdings, Inc. (FRNT), a holding company incorporated in Delaware to take advantage of favorable tax laws in that state. The corporate headquarters did not leave Colorado. In November 2006, Frontier Airlines partnered with AirTran Airways, allowing frequent fliers to earn airline miles in its EarlyReturns frequent flyer program, or AirTran's A+ frequent flyer program. In addition, the airlines refer customers to each other when appropriate. In July 2010, after Frontier Airlines merged with Midwest Airlines it ended its partnership with AirTran .

On January 24, 2007, Frontier was designated as a major carrier by the United States Department of Transportation.

In March 2007, Republic Airlines slowly began replacing Horizon Air as the operator of their feeder service, Frontier Airlines operated by Republic Airlines; Frontier JetExpress, which was operated by Horizon Air, ceased operations on November 30, 2007. In April 2008, Frontier and Republic terminated their agreement and Republic withdrew its aircraft from Frontier service on June 23, 2008.

On April 10, 2008, Frontier announced that it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy due to its credit card processor, First Data, attempting to withhold significant proceeds from ticket sales. First Data decided that it would withhold 100% of the carrier's proceeds from ticket sales beginning May 1. According to Frontier's press release, "This change in practice would have represented a material change to our cash forecasts and business plan. Unchecked, it would have put severe restraints on Frontier's liquidity..." Its operation continues uninterrupted, though, as Chapter 11 bankruptcy protects the corporation's assets and allows restructuring to ensure long-term viability.

After months of losses, Frontier Airlines reported that they made their first profit during the month of November 2008. Frontier Airlines reported $2.9 million in net income during the month of November.

On June 22, 2009, Frontier Airlines announced that pending bankruptcy court approval, Republic Airways Holdings, an Indianapolis based airline-holding company, would acquire all assets of Frontier Airlines for the amount of $108 million. Thus, Frontier Airlines would become a wholly owned subsidiary of Republic. However, 5 weeks later on July 30, Dallas-based Southwest Airlines announced that it would be making a competing bid of $113.6 million for Frontier with intentions to also operate Frontier as a wholly owned subsidiary, but also announced that it would gradually fold Frontier resources into current Southwest operating assets.

During a bankruptcy auction on August 13, 2009, Republic Airways Holdings acquired Frontier Airlines and its regional airline, Lynx Aviation, as wholly owned subsidiaries. Republic completed the transaction on October 1, 2009 and Frontier officially exited bankruptcy as a new airline.

In late 2009 Republic began to consolidate administrative positions and moved 140 jobs from the Frontier Airlines Denver headquarters to Indianapolis, Indiana. Shortly after that, in January 2010, Republic Airways announced that it will move all of its executives to Indianapolis. In February the Denver Business Journal stated that the headquarters would be moved "soon." Despite this, according to the Denver Business Journal, Frontier Airlines will still maintain a local headquarters in Denver to house Training, Marketing, Customer Reservations, & Scheduling & Planning teams after extending its lease on the building through 2020.

As Republic Airways Holdings was in process of bidding to acquire Frontier in 2009, it was also in the process of acquiring Milwaukee-based Midwest Airlines. Through the fall and winter of 2009, Republic operated its two new acquisitions as separate brands. However, to improve efficiency by better matching aircraft capacity to route demand, Republic began to intermix the fleets of the two airlines, swapping a portion of its higher-capacity planes from Frontier with its smaller-capacity planes from Midwest and vice versa. However, the move caused some confusion amongst the public, as the two brands did not offer the same amenities and did not match the amenities mentioned on the airfare. As a result, in Spring of 2010 it was announced that the Frontier and Midwest Airlines brands would merge. On April 13, Republic announced that the Frontier Airlines name would be kept.

On April 13, 2011, Frontier announced the formation of a new subsidiary, Frontier Express, that was planned to operate the airline's smaller aircraft with different services than those available on full-size aircraft.

Frontier has been awarded the FAA Diamond award for ten years straight, from 1999 through 2009. The Diamond award recognizes carriers whose mechanics and maintenance staff complete additional training and certifications beyond that required for normal FAA certification. In order to receive this award, a minimum of 25 percent of an airline's mechanics and maintenance staff must complete this additional training. Frontier is the only airline to have consecutively received this award for the last seven years, as well as the only airline to ever receive this award with 100% participation from its maintenance staff. Frontier's staff has maintained 100% participation for the last seven consecutive years during which it has earned this award.

Unlike some low-cost carriers, Frontier operates a hub and spoke route system, with more than 95% of ICAO "FFT" flights originating or arriving at its Denver hub. While the hub system can move people efficiently, it is also dependent on critical coordination at a single point. Hub-and-spoke systems like Frontier's can simplify passenger connections. Long-distance itineraries between Frontier cities generally require no more than one connection (usually in Denver), whereas a linear carrier may require multiple connections to span a long distance. Hub-and-spoke systems can also simplify maintenance, as all aircraft transit a hub frequently.

The vast majority of Frontier flights operate through its hub in Denver. Frontier's Denver operations utilize the majority of gates on Concourse A; the airline operates out of 29 of Concourse A's 43 gates. Frontier's Airbus A318 aircraft are too tall to pass under the pedestrian bridge over the south ramp of Concourse A. Frontier did attempt to establish a focus city at Los Angeles International Airport during 2004, but retreated under heavy competition and the sudden spike in fuel prices at the time. In June 2006, Frontier returned to the California market with five daily nonstop flights between Los Angeles and San Francisco, as well as daily non-stop service linking San Francisco to Las Vegas. However, these routes were short-lived and eventually discontinued in July 2007. Internationally, the airline does offer a number of routes to Mexican destinations that do not begin or end at Denver.

Frontier has deferred expansion in the competitive East Coast cities such as Boston and Pittsburgh, but otherwise is expanding outside the US in Mexico. The airline recently dropped seasonal service to Calgary with Frontier JetExpress, Frontier has also dropped seasonal service to Vancouver, BC. The carrier serves four Florida tourist destinations and the business essential cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, DC along the East Coast. The remaining Eastern interior city destinations are in the Midwest along with Atlanta and Nashville in the South. Contrary to Southwest Airlines, Frontier uses only two alternative airports in the East with the Akron-Canton Regional Airport, which services the Cleveland and Pittsburgh markets and with Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport, which serves the Norfolk area market. On May 22, 2007, the airline announced its schedule for service to its fourth country, Costa Rica. Frontier began operating to San José four times per week from its hub in Denver on November 30, 2007. This marks Frontier's first entry into Central America. Early 2008, frequency was increased to five times per week and will become seasonal, not operating from mid-September until mid-December.

On June 25, 2008, Frontier announced it would be cutting 21 of its daily departures, effective late August. Some routes are eliminated, some are temporarily halted until spring, and some are reduced in frequency.

In February 2002, the airline launched its first regional product, Frontier JetExpress, initially operated by Mesa Airlines using CRJ-200 regional jets. Similar to "express" operations of other carriers, Frontier JetExpress is targeted for markets to and from Denver that do not generate traffic sufficient to support Frontier's smallest mainline jet, the Airbus A318, but can still offer lucrative business with a smaller jet. The operation's head office was in the Hughes Center in Clark County, Nevada.

The initial JetExpress partnership with Mesa ended in January 2004, when Horizon Air was selected to operate the routes. Horizon utilized slightly larger CRJ-700 aircraft on these routes. In August 2006, Frontier and Horizon announced that their partnership would end. While Frontier was generally pleased with Horizon's operation, the carrier decided that it needed to revisit the agreement and find a provider with additional regional jets to grow the operation. The last of the CRJ-700's was returned to the Horizon Air fleet on November 30, 2007.

On January 11, 2007, Frontier Airlines announced it had signed an 11-year service agreement with Republic Airlines. Under the agreement, Republic was to operate 17, 76-seat Embraer 170 aircraft for the former Frontier JetExpress operations. At the time the contract was canceled in April 2008, Republic Airlines operated 11 aircraft for Frontier Airlines, with the remaining six aircraft expected to join the fleet by December 2008. With the integration of Republic aircraft, the 'JetExpress' denotation was removed. Subsequent to the cessation of Horizon's services for Frontier in December 2007, all flights operated by Republic were sold and marketed as "Frontier Airlines, operated by Republic Airlines." The first market created specifically for the Embraer 170 was Louisville, Kentucky, which began on April 1, 2007. Service to Louisville was suspended in August 2008 but restarted in April 2010.

Flights operated by Republic Airlines offered in-flight snack and beverage services similar to Frontier's mainline flights. Unlike Frontier's aircraft and due to the nature of contracting with regional carriers, these Embraer 170 aircraft were not fitted with LiveTV.

Frontier was a Boeing 737 Classic operator during the late 1990s and early 2000s, operating only Boeing 737-300 aircraft; by the 3rd quarter of 2001, Frontier decided that the airline's Boeing 737 fleet was becoming dated and less efficient. Beginning in the first quarter of 2002, they slowly phased out the Boeing 737-300s with new Airbus A319-100 aircraft which Airbus claims are 15% more efficient than the older jets. Since the merger with Midwest Airlines was announced in April 2010, Frontier has inherited Embraer E135, E145, E170 and E190 aircraft. Frontier is also in the process of retiring its fleet of Bombardier Q400s and Airbus A318s; Frontier’s fleet of Bombardier Q400s is to be replaced by Embraer E170 and Embraer E190 aircraft; the retirement of the Q400s began in early 2010 and is expected to be complete by April 2011. Frontier's fleet of A318s is also in the process of being retired, in September–October 2010, four of the nine aircraft are to be retired and be replaced by six newly leased Airbus A320s, Frontier has not yet announced plans for the remaining five aircraft, but they are expected to be fully retired sometime in 2011.

The Frontier Airlines livery consists of an all-white fuselage with silver billboard-style "Frontier" titles on the sides of the aircraft. Frontier uses wildlife photography on the vertical stabilizers and winglets of the aircraft to produce a distinctive look, touted in their advertisements along with their slogan: "A Whole Different Animal".

The concepts used in the livery extend into Frontier’s marketing as well. Animal aircraft used in their radio and television commercials include Jack the rabbit, Grizwald the bear, Foxy the fox (for whom Jack has a crush), Flip the dolphin (who always gets stuck going to Chicago rather than the warmer climates the others are going to), Larry the lynx, Hector the sea otter, and Sal the cougar. New additions are Penguins Jim, Joe, Jay, and Gary, a barbershop-style quartet, singing the praises of EarlyReturns to an audience of Frontier’s well-known characters from the "a whole different animal" campaign, and Hector the otter, advertising Frontier's expanded service to Mexico.

Since the merger with Midwest Airlines, Frontier is in the process of repainting 43 Embraer aircraft with the Frontier livery. As of September 2010, four aircraft had been repainted with Frontier Airlines’ livery, the entire process is expected to be completed by December 2011.

Each animal on the tail of a Frontier Airlines Airbus and Lynx Aviation Q400 has a name, the most famous being "Larry the Lynx," "Grizwald the Bear," "Jack the Rabbit", "Flip the Dolphin", "Hector the Sea Otter", and "Jim, Joe, Jay, and Gary the Penguins" for being heavily featured in Frontier advertising. When Frontier was promoting its then-New Mexico service, the airline launched its "Send Flip to Mexico" campaign, and Frontier's "Denver's Favorite Animal" campaign continues to shine attention upon their popular tails.

Frontier offers a single class of service. While Frontier does market itself as a low-cost carrier, it differentiates itself in the market by offering different bundled amenity options as part of its AirFairs program. Warm chocolate chip cookies are served on all flights longer than 500 miles that depart after 10:00 AM local time.

Launched in December 2008, as part of the AirFairs program, passengers can choose among a basic "economy" fare, a "classic" fare that includes complimentary checked bags and in-flight television, and a "classic plus" fare that is fully refundable and offers free flight changes.

Economy: The economy fare targets passengers who do not need to check bags and do not expect to change their flight. Amenities available for purchase include: snacks, checked bags and in-flight television. Should a passenger need to change their ticket, a $100.00 change fee as well as fare difference is charged. Passengers earn 100% of the EarlyReturns frequent flier miles. This is the lowest cost ticket available for purchase and is non-refundable.

Classic: The classic fare most closely represents Frontier's traditional level of cabin service. Purchasers of this fare get two complimentary checked bags and complementary DirectTV television programming. Itinerary changes are made at a cost of a $50.00 change fee as well as fare difference. This is the mid-level cost ticket and is non-refundable.

Classic plus: Fares in this category are fully refundable, and flight changes, even on the same day, do not carry an extra fee. Besides the freebies included with the classic fare, passengers receive priority boarding, an in-flight snack and a premium beverage. EarlyReturns miles are credited at 150 percent.

Beginning April 28, 2008, Frontier began offering the Grizwald's Gourmet Cafe buy on board service. This service provides passengers with a variety of snack options available for purchase on board. They include offerings from Mountain Man Fruit and Nut Company and Udi's Handcrafted Foods. Fresh sandwiches and salads from Udi's are also available on select Airbus flights.

Frontier was one of the first carriers to offer a virtual "mall" or the Frontier More Store, allowing elite Ascent or Summit frequent-flyers to spend accrued miles on merchandise and unique services. As of May 30, 2008, Frontier Airlines discontinued the "More Store" due to the filing of Chapter 11 protection on April 10, 2008.

EarlyReturns is Frontier Airlines’ frequent flier program. It is a mileage-based program that contains three levels. Upon enrolling, members start at the first level, Base, and accrue miles commensurate with actual air miles traveled on Frontier. Once a member accumulates 15,000 miles in a calendar year, they reach the Ascent level and receive free DIRECTV service, priority boarding and ticketing, priority seat assignments, a 25% mileage bonus in addition to miles accrued, and other perks. The third level, Summit, is awarded for the accrual of 25,000 miles in a calendar year and adds a 50% mileage bonus in addition to miles accrued on each flight. Besides receiving the same benefits as Ascent members, Summit members also receive complimentary alcoholic beverages. Free round trip tickets between all destinations in the contiguous U.S. as well as to Alaska require 25,000 miles, and round trip award tickets to and from Mexico and Costa Rica require 35,000 miles.

Mexicana de Aviación | History and definition of the Mexicana de Aviación | Mexicana de Aviación Image

Founded in 1921, Compañía Mexicana de Aviación, S.A. de C.V. (commonly known as Mexicana) was Mexico's oldest airline, before ceasing operations on August 28, 2010. The group's closure was announced by the company's recently installed management team a short time after the group filed for Concurso Mercantil (Mexican law equivalent to US Chapter 11) and US Chapter 15. It had its headquarters in the Mexicana de Aviación Tower in Colonia del Valle, Benito Juárez, Mexico City.

In addition to domestic services, Mexicana operated flights to various international destinations in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America and Europe (until August 31). Its primary hub was Mexico City's Benito Juarez International Airport, with secondary hubs at Cancún International Airport, and Guadalajara's Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla International Airport.

Mexicana's main competitors were Aeroméxico (although the two companies "codeshared" on several routes), and low-cost carriers such as Volaris and Interjet. It was North America's oldest airline and the world's fourth oldest airline operating under the same name, after the Netherlands' KLM, Colombia's Avianca and Australia's Qantas.

In 2009, the Mexicana group of airlines (including Mexicana Click and Mexicana Link) carried just over 11 million passengers (6.6 million on domestic routes and 4.5 million on international routes, primarily to the US), using a fleet of some 110 aircraft.

Over the three years prior to its folding, the Mexicana group had increased its share of what was a burgeoning domestic market, from around 22% at the beginning of 2007 to somewhere between 28% and 30% for most of its final 12 months. This was achieved through downsizing mainline Mexicana operations whilst ramping up activities at Mexicana Click ( originally envisaged as a low-cost carrier) and Mexicana Link (its CRJ-operating subsidiary based at Guadalajara).

After first joining Star Alliance in 2000, Mexicana left the alliance in 2004 before joining Oneworld on November 10, 2009. Mexicana entered bankruptcy protection in August 2010 in an attempt to restructure its business operations. On August 27, 2010, Mexicana announced it would suspend operations indefinitely effective noon August 28, 2010. Its subsidiaries Click and Link have since ceased their operations as well.

William Lantie Mallory and George Rihl headed Compañía Mexicana de Aviación ("Mexican Aviation Company" or "Mexican Airline Company"), a competitor to CMTA; they acquired the latter's assets in 1924 and the company that emerged existed until 2010. In 1925 Sherman Fairchild purchased a 20% stake in the Mexican airline, introducing Fairchild FC2 airplanes in 1928. In February 1929, Juan Trippe of Pan Am took over the majority of the airline's stock, and the company opened its first international route, with service to the United States. Mexicana used the Ford Trimotor plane to operate the Mexico City-Tuxpan-Tampico-Brownsville, Texas, USA, route. Charles Lindbergh piloted the first flight on this route.

Pioneer of aviation and shareholder of Mexicana de Aviacion S.A. de C.V.

The mining engineer William Lantie Mallory Sr. " a great entrepreneur " and that he had been in World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917–1918, had the vision to create the first international competitive airline for Mexico.

William Lantie Mallory Sr, wanted his son William Lantie Mallory Jr continue as head of the company and direct blood line his grandson, Paul John Mallory (who had actually been general manager), for the Mallory family owners continue to be provided " Mexicana de Aviacion ".

But the death of William Lantie Mallory Sr, the Company's shares are sold, and his son could not go in front of Mexicana de Aviacion.

In 2005 Aerocaribe was renamed Click Mexicana and converted all of its fleet from the older generation DC-9s to Fokker 100 aircraft. Click is a wholly owned subsdiary of Mexicana de Aviacion.

Mexicana used Click as a low-cost airline to compete against other low-costs such as Aviacsa, Interjet, A Volar and Volaris. Mexicana employed Click as a feeder line and mostly on lower-passenger routes and times, all in domestic operations, while Mexicana focused on international and longer domestic routes. Mexicana was considering the possibility of expanding Click's fleet to incorporate A319 which could serve destinations in Central America and the Caribbean. Click currently has 22 F100 aircraft in an all economy-plus layout. The main cabin has a smart look with an all grey-leather seats with the Click logo in the headrest. The seat pitch is 35°. In 2008 Mexicana and Click were invited to the Oneworld alliance at the member and member affiliate level, respectively.

Mexicana rebranded Click Mexicana as MexicanaClick with the announcement of the new corporate livery late-November 2008. MexicanaClick highlights the Mexicana linkage.

Mexicana, Mexico’s largest airline, said it signed in March 2009 an agreement with Boeing to lease 25 airplanes for Click. The multi-year contract is part of Mexicana’s fleet renovation program, and the Boeing 717s were to replace the Fokker F-100 aircraft that Mexicana Click currently operates. The subsidiary, Mexicana Click, was expected to begin receiving the planes this month from Boeing’s financing and leasing arm, the companies said in a press release. 16 of the planes were previously used by Midwest Airlines, which returned the aircraft to Boeing when the airline restructured last year. Terms of the lease weren’t disclosed.

Mexicana introduced new livery in the second half of 2008. It consists of a "eurowhite" fuselage with the front in marine blue outlining a stylized eagle. The tail features the same eagle in marine blue with a light-blue background. New graphic design is the work of Gabriel Martínez Meave, a renowned Mexican designer who has received several international awards, most recent of them from the Type Directors Club.

Mexicana offers "Clase Elite", or business class, on all flights. Warm meals are served on all domestic and international flights longer than 40 minutes. Passengers also receive snacks throughout the flight, selection of meals, and generous refreshments. The seats on the Boeing 767-300ER are 23 inches across and recline 160°; while seats on the Airbus 320 are 22 inches across and recline approx 100° degrees. The seats are dark blue with small Aztec logos embossed on the seat with a white headrest cover displaying Mexicana's logo in black. Catering services are provided by Executive Chef Enrique Olvera

Up to 2011, Mexicana has been involved in a total of 26 incidents, including 9 fatal.

On June 4, 1969, Flight 704 crashed near Salinas Victoria; some 20 miles north of the city of Monterrey. All 79 people on board were killed, including Mexican tennis star Rafael Osuna. The aircraft was a Boeing 727-64, with tail number XA-SEL, and was approaching Monterrey's airport. It had made a continuous descent in the last 5 minutes before impact. The pilot turned left instead of right once the aircraft passed over the Monterrey VOR, apparently not knowing his exact position at the time.

On September 21, 1969, another Mexicana Boeing 727-64, with tail number XA-SEJ, crashed short of the runway 23L at Mexico City International Airport. Of the 118 people on board, 27 died. The aircraft had been cleared for an ILS approach when it suddenly lost altitude and hit the ground. After becoming airborne once again, the plane crashed into a railway embankment. At the time of the impact, the aircraft was in a normal landing configuration. Since the flight data recorder had been installed improperly two days before and there was no cockpit voice recorder, the cause of the crash couldn't be established.

On March 31, 1986, Flight 940 crashed in Las Mesas; near Maravatio, Michoacan. All 167 people on board the Boeing 727-264 were killed, making it the worst plane crash in the country's history and the worst ever to have involved this type of aircraft. After reaching an altitude of 31,000 feet, a tire in the left main landing gear burst and crippled the plane's controls, causing an in-flight fire and an explosive decompression in the process. It was found that the tire had been filled with air rather than nitrogen, leading to a chemical explosion within the tire itself.